How Charles Dickens Portrays Class in Great Expectations...

The novel, Great Expectations is deemed to be one of the greatest English classic novels of the literary heritage. Charles Dickens, the author of Great Expectations is thought to be one of historys finest writers and has contributed to English literature in many ways. Great Expectations is Dickens thirteenth novel and is based loosely on his own experiences. He did this with many of his novels, including his partly auto-biographical piece, David Copperfield (with Dickenss own negligent mother and father being closely depicted in his character, Davids parents). All the Year Round was a magazine that Charles Dickens had founded. In late 1860, the sales of the magazine were dropping, and so Dickens began publishing†¦show more content†¦In the Victorian times, there was a lack of social mobility, meaning that it was difficult to move from one class to the next. There were three classes which were determined by parentage. The aristocracy were those with wealth and power. The middle-class were managers, who if they were exceedingly successful, could become rich but it was hard to adapt to the habits and behaviour of the aristocracy. Unfortunately for those who were working class (undertaking manual labour), it was almost a fruitless struggle to try. Pips life shows how one individual has moved from the working class to becoming a gentleman. This essay will be concentrating on the way Dickens portrays class in Great Expectations. The story is a fictional autobiography of Pip who narrates the story of his life when he is an adult. Because of this, there are two Pips - Pip the narrator, who tells us the story many years after the events and Pip the child, who acts out the events as they are taking place. We know this, as Pip the narrator often uses adult vocabulary to speak of his childhood. He uses words such as interlocutor to describe the convict - it is not the type of word a young child would use. Pip reflects on the way he viewed the small graves for his brothers in chapter one, unreasonably, which show that he realises now that at the time it was absurd for him to have thought that his brothers were buried on theirShow MoreRelatedCharles Dickens Great Expectations1335 Words   |  6 Pagesfamily was to help provide the money .Since the men were more superior than the women, they received more rights like the right to vote. In the novel Great Expectations, Charles Dickens uses the characters in the book to portray the gender roles, social classes and the changing of classes in the Victorian era. In Great Expectations, Charles Dickens shows the gender roles of men as living within different social spaces. Unlike most women, the men had the social existence that was free to roam atRead MoreGreat Expectations and a Christmas Carol: a True Gentleman Essay1430 Words   |  6 PagesGreat Expectations and A Christmas Carol: A True Gentleman According to Dictionary.com, a gentleman is a civilized, educated, sensitive, or well-mannered man. However, by Victorian definition, a gentleman was, perhaps most importantly, a rich man. â€Å"Charles Dickens†¦was an author of relatively humble origins who desired passionately to be recognized as a gentleman, and insisted, in consequence, upon the essential dignity of his occupation† (Victorian Web). In Great Expectations he portrays Pip, aRead MoreGreat Expectations By Charles Dickens1347 Words   |  6 Pagesrich getting richer. Despite this, social mobility is alive and well, and has been for centuries. In his novel, Great Expectations, Charles Dickens voices the concerns of many that lived in Victorian England during the 19th century by promoting such a desire to live life in a more prosperous social class. One of the most fundamental and reoccurring themes in the novel is that of social class. Throughout the novel, the reader examines the protagonist, known as Pi p, as he transforms from a poor workingRead MoreThe Great Gatsby and Great Expectations: A Comparison Essay examples972 Words   |  4 Pagesthe common man always believes that the wealthy live happier lives. But two landmark authors portray a different story. Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations and F. Scot Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, both show that in order to be truly happy, one must reject superficial things, such as one’s position in the caste system of society, and pursue one’s true desires. When given the choice between upper class and common, a well-rounded individual will choose a common life. At the start of the novel, theRead MoreThe Elements of Fortune and Contentment Dissected in Great Expectations by Charles Dickens688 Words   |  3 Pagessomeone is rich or poor. In the novel, Great Expectations, Charles Dickens uses the element of fortune and social class to show the dynamic of how wealth doesn’t guarantee contentment. Joe Gargery, Pips brother-in-law and a benevolent blacksmith , is very satisfied with his status as a member of the lower class. He believes that he’s â€Å"wrong out of the forge† (224) and well off working in what he senses is his rightful place. In an unqualified, typical lower class setting Joe is contented and able toRead MoreCharles Dickens was one of the Brightest and Most Influential Writers of His Time1325 Words   |  5 Pages The British writer Charles Dickens was one of the brightest and most influential people of his time. His many writings, including Great Expectations and A Christmas Carol, have been efficacious in many lives and have created a legacy of classics that will be read forever. Dickens, who was born in Portsmouth, England, was raised in a poor family, in which he had to work instead of attending school. Although not being able to go to school was detrimental to Charles, it gave him a chance to begin hisRead MorePersonal Growth And Development Of Romanticism In Great Expectations By Charles Dickens969 Words   |  4 Pagesreaders to enjoy a book. Charles Dickens, a famous writer, wrote in a special kind of writing known as Dickensian. This kind of writing combines grotesque, sentimentality and humor all together. Great Expectations by Charles Dickens illustrates the personal growth and development of Pip. Dickens uses Dickensian to let the readers understand and see the book in an alternate light. A use of Dickensian is shown when Pip is describing Miss Havisham. On page 56 of Great Expectations it says, â€Å"But I saw allRead MoreEssay on Stages of Pip Growing Up in the Novel Great Expectations1000 Words   |  4 PagesGreat Expectations is a novel by Charles Dickens that thoroughly captures the adventures of growing up. The book details the life of a boy through his many stages of life, until he is finally a grown man, wizened by his previous encounters. Dickens’ emotions in this book are very sincere, because he had a similar experience when his family went to debtor’s prison. Pip starts as a young boy, unaware of social class, who then becomes a snob, overcome by the power of money, and finally grows intoRead MoreEssay on Pips Development Through Character Interactions1304 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout Dickens’ novel Great Expectations, the character, personality, and social beliefs of Pip undergo complete transformations as he interacts with an ever-changing pool of characters presented in the book. Pip’s moral values remain more or less constant at the beginning and the end; however, it is evident that in the time between, the years of his maturation and coming of adulthood, he is fledgling to find his place in society. Although Pip is influenced by many characters throughout the novelRead MoreGreat Expectations by Charles Dickens Essay1291 Words   |  6 PagesGreat Expectations by Charles Dickens Great Expectations is a novel, which represents class society amongst the rich, the poor and the criminal in Victorian England. Using the life of the main character in the novel, Pip; Charles Dickens challenges issues like youth treatment, injustices in the legal system and the discriminations between the classes. As the novel progresses, various events happen to Pip, which makes him more aware of the reality he is living

Slavery Or Enslaved Objects Fit Right Into The Discourses...

In my opinion, slavery or enslaved objects fit right into the discourses of modernity. Paul Gilroy quoted Hegel in The Black Atlantic. â€Å"This condition is capable of no development or Culture, and as we see them at this day, such they have always been† (Gilroy 41). That is saying that blacks never have or will contribute to anything in the world. That was another reason for slave owners to treat slaves like the scum on the bottom of their shoe. If blacks aren’t doing anything to benefit us in any type of way, what’s the point of treating them like human beings? That’s probably how slave owners thought and they had a reason. If blacks weren’t getting any credit for anything and all the credit has been and will always be given to the whites,†¦show more content†¦Blacks always found themselves resisting physical, political and economic domination. For that specific reason, Gilroy argues that nation as an organizing historical principal la cks accuracy because it only shows the negative side of everything. Gilroy shows how it is represented in black music.†This fundamental dislocation of black culture is especially important in recent history of black musics which, produced out of racial slavery which made modern western civilization possible, now dominate its popular cultures† (Gilroy 80). Du Bois agrees with Gilroy about the sorrow songs. In The Souls of Black Folk Du Bois thinks that sorrow songs are a show of the achievements of African descendants in America. The songs have been passed down from generation to generation. The songs are just like their composers, have been polished by the fires of American slavery, inequality, and cruelty. These songs are the music of an unhappy people, and the creations of children of disappointment; and yet, they are also prayers which breathe hope and a faith in the ultimate justice of things (Du Bois 157). The sorrow songs are a way for slaves to speak to the world in their own special way. Du Bois begins every single chapter with a piece of religious music. That in itself shows how important the sorrow songs are. Slaves intentionally hold on to their troubles to use as motivation for overcoming future obstacles. Sorrow songs are the greatest

Human Capital and Environmental Taxation and Policy

Question: Discuss about the Human Capital and Environmental Taxation and Policy. Answer: Introduction: As per the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997 an assessee, Australian resident is liable to pay taxes on the assessable income computed in accordance with division 6. Tax on income is determined on the basis of nature of income as well as the time of income. In the given situation, taxability of Megan is to be determined who is a mining engineer and spends eight months of each year out of the country Australia for the purpose of work. In order to compute the assessability of Megans taxable income, it is essential to determine the residential status of Megan. Further, Megans annual income consists of the payment for superannuation payment made by the employer as well as her own contribution. During the financial year, Megans gross income amounted to $180,000 out of which she contributed $20,000 to the superannuation fund. In addition to this, Megan also accepted one-off payment amounted to $75,000, which is paid against the agreement for not rendering employment to any other company. Apart from that, Megan also performed freelance service for several mining organizations amount totaled to $121,000 that includes GST. Megan also received Christmas gifts amounted to $1,800 along with a cash gift amounted $5,000. The case also represents the receipt from designing of equipment as an intellectual property amounted to $440,000. Other than the income from employment and profession in mining, Megan also receives payment from painting activities amounted to $22,000 and received an award valued $33,000. Issues raised in the present case about inclusion of incomes and allowable deductions for the purpose of assessable income. Megan, the taxpayer wanted to exclude her income from equipment designing as an intellectual property right. She also wanted to exclude the income received from painting activities as a hobby that includes receipt of cash prize. However, commissioner of taxation system has contended that any income received by the individual during the current tax year is required to be included for the purpose of assessable income. Further, income received from the activities that are vocational or according to individuals hobby is required to be disclosed in the tax return. Law According to the Taxation Rulings (TR) 98/17, ITAA 97, an individual is regarded as Australian resident for the purpose of tax if such individual leaves the country on a temporary basis and does not set up or own a permanent home in another region (Somers Eynaud, 2015). In case the individual is a resident of Australia for the purpose of tax, then the individual is required to declare and disclose all the income earned within and outside Australia. The taxable income is measured by deducting the allowable expenses under taxation system from the assessable incomes of the assessee. As per the Taxation Ruling 2010/1 ITAA 97, it has been stated that the contribution in superannuation account made by employer and voluntary contribution shall be taxable at a rate of 15% in the books of the taxpayer (Savage et al., 2015). However, contribution from superannuation is exempted from assessable income if is received after the age of 75 years. Further, Receipt of payment as one-off for an agree ment required to be included in the assessment of income tax as per Australian Taxation System. Considering the provision of ITAA 97 TR 2005/13, gifts received by the individuals are not taxable if it is received as a small amount against small occasions or as a prize or awards (Budig, Misra Boeckmann, 2016). Analysis Considering the taxation rulings and provisions of ITAA 97, Megan is required to assess her income received from various mining companies and other sources. Firstly, in case of receipt of gross income $180,000 would be taxable including the amount contributed to superannuation fund. According the rulings on superannuation fund, amount of superannuation fund is taxable at 15% in case the receiver is under the age of 75. Since, the age is not mentioned in the case study, it has been assumed that Megan is under the age of 75 and accordingly, $180,000 shall be taxable under the normal tax scheme. On the other hand, superannuation contribution $20,000 would be taxable @15%. Further, receipt of one-off payment $75,000 would constitute as assessable income. Based on the decided case law of Dixon v. High Court in Federal Commissioner of Tax it has been considered that the amounts received by the employers are subjected to the tax if the payment is made during the period of service. Moreover, deductions related to the expense on generation of income are allowable as per the provisions under division 6 ITAA 97. Therefore, Megan is eligible to claim deductions for expenses incurred during the current tax year. Based on the decided case law Coles Myer Finance Pty Ltd v. FC of T93 ATC 4214 at 4222; (1993) 25 ATR 95 at 105, the issue on assessment of prepaid expenses as deduction to evaluate the taxable income was brought to the notice. The issue was regarding the attributable claim for deduction on prepaid expenses by the taxpayer as well as the timing of allowable deduction. Since the payment is prepaid, the commissioner contented that the expense would be allowed as deduction for the period it relates to. However, the taxpayer contended the prepayment to be deducted in the current taxation year because there was cash out flow. Considering the TR of ITAA 97, the court decided that the prepayment would be allowed as deduction only for the period it relates to i.e. t he deductible expense should be on accrual basis. Apart from the receipt of income from employer, Megan also received the income from freelancing services from several other mining organizations amounted to $121,000 that includes GST. According to the ITAA 97, any income received by the individual as a vocational service shall be taxable in the Australian Taxation System. Similarly, in the decided case law of Hayes v. Federal Commissioner of Taxation it has been observed that the court provided the judgment for inclusion of income received from the professional activities as assessable income. Moreover, the amount from freelancing work received by Megan includes Goods and Service Tax (GST). According to Australian Taxation System, if a taxpayer is eligible to claim credit on GST, then the total amount received from freelancing work shall be deducted by the amount of GST included. Therefore, amount of $121,000 would be taxable deducted by the amount of GST, as income from business and profession. Assessable income of the individual also considers the amount of gifts received from relatives or business associates. However, as per the provisions of ITAA 97 for the purpose of assessable income, gifts received as cash or as a property assets that includes shares and securities considered as exempted income. In the present case, Megan received vintage champagne, as a gift that is valued at $1,800 shall be included as an assessable income because it is neither a cash gift nor a property. On the other hand, cash gift amounted to $5,000 received by Megan would be an exempted income and not liable to be included in assessable income. Based on the decided case law of Harris v. Federal Commissioner of Taxation, high court provided the judgment that receipt of gifts cannot be considered as income of the taxpayer. However, the intention behind the gift donor shall not be of any monetary advantage and the gift should be in terms of cash or property. Similarly, awards winnings, prizes, winn ings from lotteries and such other rewards are not considered as the income of taxpayer. Accordingly, award won by Megan from an art industry valued at $33,000 would not be included in the assessable income. On the contrary, income received from the designing of mining equipment amounted to $440,000 included the intellectual property. Considering the provisions of Australian Taxation System, any income received from the business activity or professional activity, it should be included in the assessable income of the taxpayer. In the present situation, amount received from designing activity constitutes a professional activity therefore; the amount received from designing activity shall be included in the taxable income of Megan. Similarly, Megan also performs activities on landscape paintings through which she earned $22,000 from the exhibition of paintings. On the basis of the judgment of Federal Court by Commissioner of Taxation any income received from the performance of vocation courses or hobby activities would be constituted as taxable income. One of the important factors for determining the assessable income is residential status of the taxpayer. In the given case, Megan works for an Australian mining organization and stays out of the country for around 8 months for the work purpose. As per the taxation ruling (TR) 98/17 under Income Tax Assessment Act (ITAA) 1997, Megan does not have a permanent set up outside Australia therefore; she is considered an Australian resident. Megan is liable to pay taxes on her income generated from employment, professional services and other vocational activities. Accordingly, Megan is liable to include all the incomes received during the year except the cash gifts and awards received from the painting exhibition. Further, Megan is also eligible to claim credit on Goods and Service Tax because the payment received from freelancing work was included the amount of GST. All other income received by Megan would be included in the assessable income during the current year of tax. Conclusion Considering the elements of taxation rulings of ITAA97, an Australian resident for tax purpose is required to pay tax on assessable income that includes several incomes and deductible expenses. It has been observed that Megan is an Australian resident for taxation purpose even if she stays out of the country for 8 months. Since, she does not have a permanent set up out of Australia and travels abroad for the work purpose, Megan is a resident of Australia and required to pay taxes on the incomes received from different sources. Assessable income is measured by considering the incomes received deducted by the expenses incurred to generate the incomes as well as other exempted income. Megans taxable income includes income received from the employment in mining company as well as the voluntary superannuation fund would be taxable at a separate rate. Receipt of one- off payment of $75,000 would also be included in the assessable income of Megan, because it is a receipt against an agreement on restriction of rendering mining services for other company. However, Megans income from freelancing services would be included in the assessable income amounted to $121,000 against which she is eligible to claim for GST because the payment includes the amount of GST. Apart from that, Megan is required to include the amount received from designing in the tax return because it is an income received from professional service. Contention of Megan on non-disclosure of receipts from painting activities in the tax return is not tenable because any income generated from activities related to hobby or interest is taxable under other sources. On the contrary, cash award amounted to $33,000 received from the art industry is an exempted income as per the Australian Taxation System. Therefore, Megan is required to disclose the receipt of $22,000 in the t ax return as assessable income while cash prize amounted to $33,000 would be disclosed under the head exempted income. However, other gifts received by Megan including vintage champagne amounted to $1,800 would not be exempted. Since, the gift is not a cash gift nor it is a property asset $1,800 would be included in the assessable income during the current tax year. On the other hand, cash gift amounted to $5,000 would be considered as an exempted income as per the taxation rulings of ITAA 97. Therefore, Megan is liable to pay tax on assessable income at the current prevailing rate that specifies exemption for taxable income amounted to $18,200. Income beyond $18,200 is taxable at the prevailing tax slab plus a Medicare levy at the rate 2% on the total taxable income. Additionally, Megan is liable to pay tax on superannuation contribution at the rate 15% apart from the tax on business and salary income. References Budig, M. J., Misra, J., Boeckmann, I. (2016). WorkFamily Policy Trade-Offs for Mothers? Unpacking the Cross-National Variation in Motherhood Earnings Penalties.Work and Occupations,43(2), 119-177. Savage, M., Colgan, B., Callan, T., Walsh, J. R. (2015). Making Work Pay More: Recent Initiatives.Budget Perspectives 2016 Paper,2. Somers, R., Eynaud, A. (2015). A matter of trusts: The ATO's proposed treatment of unpaid present entitlements: Part 1.Taxation in Australia,50(2), 90. Fachinger, U., Frankus, A. (2015). Freelancers, Self-Employment and the Insurance against Social Risks.The Handbook of Research on Freelancing and Self-Employment, 135. Gbadago, F. Y., Awunyo-Vitor, D. (2015). Gift tax compliance in Ghana: Evidence from Kumasi Metropolis.Journal of Accounting and Taxation,7(2), 29. Grant, J. M. (2015). Complications in Putting Unborn Spoiled Brats to Work: Using Lessons from Labor Supply Theory to Design Incentive Trusts.Available at SSRN 2619461. Hipp, L., Bernhardt, J., Allmendinger, J. (2015). Institutions and the prevalence of nonstandard employment.Socio-Economic Review,13(2), 351-377. Kroft, K., Kucko, K. J., Lehmann, E., Schmieder, J. F. (2015).Optimal income taxation with unemployment and wage responses: A sufficient statistics approach(No. w21757). National Bureau of Economic Research. Lee, T. Y., Pollitt, H., Na, S. I., Chewpreecha, U. (2015). 12 Human capital and environmental taxation in Japan and Korea.Low-carbon, Sustainable Future in East Asia: Improving Energy Systems, Taxation and Policy Cooperation, 190. McCormack, S. W. (2016). Postpartum Taxation: The Internal Revenue Code and the Opt Out Mom.University of Washington School of Law Research Paper, (2016-09).

Women of the Armed Forces

Introduction The military has been regarded as a man’s world. However there has emerged a new generation of women who have taken on the challenge of serving in combat. Not only do women serve in the military as subordinates, but there are many military women leaders.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Women of the Armed Forces specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It may seem impossible for women leaders in the military to have cooperation from their subordinates in this egocentric world of combat, but the power of influence has worked for them. This is by applying the tool of transformational leadership. The purpose of this paper is to discuss transformational leadership in relation to women of armed forces. Military Women as Leaders Women have in the past been discriminated against during appointment of leadership positions in most organizations. The study of leadership in regard to women has been a topic f ull of contention but it has, in the recent past, undergone a major transition (Harper, 2004). Policies that protect women leaders from discrimination have increased numerously hence widening the scope of leadership opportunities for women. As a result, women are holding leadership positions in all domains of influence or interest in a way that has never been experienced before (Taylor, 2008). Leadership in combat is a topic that was in the past being tackled mostly using male admirals, leaving out women, who have a great potential of making good leaders in the military. Though there still remains some resentment and prejudice regarding women in the military, there has recently been an increase of women serving in this field and opportunities for military training for women are on the rise (Taylor, 2008). There is a continuous evolution on the attitudes and assumptions about women’s roles in military (Booher, 2007). Roles and Responsibilities Women play a great role in milita ry. In the past, women were not allowed to handle machinery or to work in the infantry (Simon, 2001). Today, their role in military have changed from merely cooking, cleaning and nursing male soldiers to serving as military police, commanders, drivers, pilots of jet fighters, guards of prisoners and medics in battles (Carreiras, 2008). Women also serve very effectively as spies because they are not easily suspected, owing to the common assumption that women’s role is mainly domestic, not military. Historical Background From time immemorial, fighting in battles has been believed to be an area suitable for men only. This is because women have been believed to be both physically and emotionally fragile, and they cannot therefore cope with the physical strain or trauma that accompanies military wars (Carreiras, 2008).Advertising Looking for term paper on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Therefore, wome n’s participation in military has been considered to be ‘indirect’ in that they have served as nurses and care givers to their male companions during war. Women used to participate during times of war by helping the men who were fighting or to nurse those that got hurt, but they were not allowed to involve themselves in the battle (Lindm, 2008). However, the number of women serving ‘directly’ in the military has continuously been on the rise (Clemmitt, 2009). Since the American Revolution, women have served in the military (Goldstein, 2003). This field was mainly directed to males, and the women who served in this field in their initial service were required to change their appearance to that of men, such that one could not recognize them as women at a glance (Harper, 2004). In 1948, women were granted a permanent legal position in the United States military, but were still banned from working in ‘vessels that are engaged in combat positionsâ⠂¬â„¢ (Meszaros, 2003). In the 1950’s and 60’s, women were allowed to hold the position of a General Officer as long as they qualified. The training needed for that position was also made open for eligible women (Meszaros, 2003). In the 1970’s, women were allowed to serve in specific types of ships that were not in combat positions (Harper, 2004). Also, the Women Army Corps was added to the list of recognized branches of the Army (Harper, 2004). During the years 1992 and 1993, the National Defense Act invalidated the law that banned women from serving in combat vessels, but this was rejected by the Presidential Commission (Clemmitt, 2009). This and other exclusions that were made concerning the level of service women could give in the army closed out many potential women from serving in the military (Clemmitt, 2009). Theories of Leadership During the initial part of the twentieth century, the interest that people had in leadership grew (Horn, 2008). Interest gre w from only focusing on distinct qualities of leaders and those being led to emphasis on the level of skill and other variables (Horn, 2008). This was mainly caused by the major challenges that faced organizational structures. Several theories of leadership emerged as a result of the pursuit to understand and improve on leadership (Murray, 2001). These theories are based on an assumption (DuBrin, 2009). Great Man Theory The Great Man Theory is based on the assumption that the ability to lead is intrinsic and that leaders are not made but born, and that appropriate leaders will develop when there is a crisis or need (Murray, 2001). This theory was biased, because most of those who did a research were men, and they believed that women could be great in other areas but leadership (DuBrin, 2009). The leaders in this theory portray acts of heroism, and such leaders often appear in legends and myths (Murray, 2001).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Women of the A rmed Forces specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Early studies focused on leaders like Churchill, Mohamed, Gandhi and Jesus who had already made it in positive influential leadership (Bass, 2006). Studying the life of these leaders made the early researchers to hypothesize that leadership and breeding had a very close correlation (Bass, 2006). It was stated by the Scottish historian by the name Carlyle Thomas (1841) that â€Å"The world’s history is but a biography of great men† (DuBrin, 2009). His argument was that the history of the world was shaped by their expertise in leadership, their intellect, the splendor of their art and, above all, their divine source of inspiration. Regardless of whether leaders are born or made, it is indisputably apparent that leaders are not similar to other people (Murray, 2001). For leaders to succeed they do not have to be ‘great’ in a heroic way but they need to have what it r eally takes to lead. Leadership is a challenging, inexorable work filled with weighty responsibilities and mammoth demands (Murray, 2001). It is severely wrong to imply that leaders are commonplace people whose time and chance happened to coincide. Trait Theory The trait theory was derived from the Great Man theory, as it sought to narrow the items of study down to the specific personal traits of successful leaders (Murray, 2001). This was based on the assumption that every person has a combination inborn traits, some of which are appropriate for leadership, and therefore this theory relates certain traits with leaders (DuBrin, 2009). The challenge this theory faces is the failure to explain the reason why we have people who are not leaders yet they possess those leadership traits (DuBrin, 2009). The assumption here is that provided one can identify the good qualities associated with leadership, then spotting a leader is easy (DuBrin, 2009). It is important to know these qualities t hat many people look for in leaders, but one cannot rely on this method all the time. As much as the in-born traits greatly influence who we are and what we do, it is possible for one to change the once positive trait to a negative one and vice versa (DuBrin, 2009). For instance, a truthful person can learn how to lie, and an honest person can learn how to cheat with time. On the other hand, a shy person can learn how to portray confidence and a selfish person, with time, can learn how to be selfless. Up to the 1940’s, the Trait theory listed various characteristics believed to be found in leaders (Murray, 2001). These included courage, charisma, intelligence and physical traits like height and strength (Murray, 2001). However, upon more research on the validity of this theory, some of these traits were struck off because they failed to show the difference of a leader and a follower (Murray, 2001).Advertising Looking for term paper on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance not every tall or strong person would have the necessary skills of leadership like good communication skills. The conclusion that was reached upon after this research was that though possessing certain traits would make the chances of one making a good leader rise up; there was no certainty of successful leadership (Murray, 2001). Contingency Theory The assumption here is that there is no precise way of leading an organization, but the effectiveness of any style of leadership is contingent upon several variables (Murray, 2001). This implies that a leader who is making it in one area may fail to perform when put in a different area or in a different situation (DuBrin, 2009). The hypothesis upon which this theory is based is that if an organization has features that combine best with the expectations of their surrounding will achieve the best results (Murray, 2001). An organization should therefore be familiar with the combination of variables under which it is most effec tive. Some of these contingencies include: the attitude of followers, the level or type of technology being used, the available resources, and the size of the organization and other features of the present situation (Murray, 2001). The leadership approach a leader uses and his orientations also determine the final outcome of an organization. Some leaders are bent towards relationship while others towards task (DuBrin, 2009). The former deal with those they lead as co-workers and they believe that close relationships from person to person have to be established if the set goal has to be achieved (DuBrin, 2009). The latter give the first priority to achieving the set goal and the second priority to developing a good relationship with those they lead (Murray, 2001). These types of leaders will be very harsh on people working for them when they show any form of reluctance and resistance. Different leaders implement different approaches in their organizations. Some are supportive while o thers are directive (Murray, 2001). A directive way of leading is that in which the leader gives directives to his followers. He gives a job description, states his expectations and supervises the work (Murray, 2001). On the contrary, a supportive leader will go a step further and allow those he leads to give their opinion about a problem. He will also allow them to exercise their creativity and even do various reconfigurations after which he will give the final approval (DuBrin, 2009). Situational Theory The basis of this theory is the assumption that the nature of a present situation is what influences the direction a leader will take (Bass, 2006). Though a leader may have many styles of leadership, he should know when to use each style as the situation leads. There are several styles that are used in situational leadership. Authoritative leadership involves identification of the set goals and the involvement of the followers in suggesting the most efficient ways of achieving the goals (Murray, 2001). This style is only suitable for mature followers who are willing to set reasonable goals and to sacrifice so as to achieve them (Kunin, 2008). Democratic leadership allows the followers to influence decisions made in the organization by ballot (DuBrin, 2009). This style of leadership consumes a lot of time and money, especially for big groups (DuBrin, 2009). Most of the time, this method is used when a new system is being introduced so as to replace or modify an old one. Therefore there is need for the followers to be both well informed about the structure of the organization and the change being put into operation (Kunin, 2008). Coercive leadership is the leadership style in which the leader commands instant acquiescence to his instructions (Kunin, 2008). The goals set by this leader are achieved by bullying and sometimes humbling his followers (Kunin, 2008). The style of coercive leadership is best applied in circumstances where the organization and/or the fo llowers need a total turnaround endeavor. For instance, it is valuable during calamity or when dealing with followers whose performance is below par; it is usually applied as a last option (Murray, 2001). Affiliative leadership is that in which the leader encourages accord amid his followers and facilitates the resolution of conflict (DuBrin, 2009). This style of leadership majors on team-building by ensuring mutual connection between the employees (Murray, 2001). One major drawback with this style is that underperformance may go unimpeded and that some followers can easily take advantage of the leader’s lack of severity at that point in time (DuBrin, 2009). Affiliative leadership is most effectual when there is need for teambuilding and drive (Murray, 2001). Leadership styles of women in the Armed Forces For leadership to be effective, it must consist of several skills. A leader who is effective must have exceptional mastery of communication, sober and unbiased decision maki ng ability, good skills in human relations, managerial skills and planning skills (Kunin, 2008). An effective leader is one who positively influences those he or she leads to do things that they would otherwise not have done without his leadership (Kunin, 2008). Various leadership styles apply in different situations, and a good leader in the armed forces should be in a position to know when to apply which leadership style. Authoritarian The authoritarian leader solely does decision making and issues directives to her followers, whose duty is to obey without questioning. This is done basically because the leader knows what is most excellent for the organization (Bass, 2006). This style of leadership makes the followers to have arrogance, ignorance, laziness, dependability and lack of initiative (Kunin, 2008). This method of leadership is valuable in places where the people are accustomed to following orders given for example in schools, prisons and military (Kunin, 2008). This is th e most widely used style in the military. Though this style is in many ways defective, it is effective most of the times because of the military customs (Horn, 2008). When you give people in the military liberty and flexibility it often goes to waste or it is directed in wrong places (Horn, 2008). They are more comfortable being given specific directives on what to do instead of having the burden of being counted on to be creative and innovative (Murray, 2001). At times, application of the authoritarian leadership style is necessary in the military. It is more efficient and effective in circumstances where time is limited and where there is need for urgent action (Murray, 2001). However, in circumstances where there is plenty of time and no need for urgency, this style of leadership can lead to making of rush decisions that are faulty. It also leaves no room for creativity in circumstances where planning is being done (Murray, 2001). Therefore, a good military leader should know whe n to be in charge of the situation and when to sit back and allow collective participation. Democratic This style entails supervision that is minimal and is suitable for places where professionalism is portrayed in that people are ready to bear the responsibility for their actions (Murray, 2001). The followers are encouraged to give their various suggestions even though those suggestions may not necessarily be used directly in administration. The last word though lies with the leader (DuBrin, 2009). The followers under this leadership style are approachable, warm and portray confidence (Bass, 2006). Democratic leadership may not always apply in the military, but it is effective when those under command are dependable and they have a high level of expertise and proficiency in what they do (Horn, 2008). The followers in this style of leadership give a higher output because they are involved in decision making. This style has its own shortcomings, though. Many leaders feel that they lo se control and command when they apply this method (DuBrin, 2009). Those under command may also take advantage of the situation and be sluggish in their duty (Murray, 2001). Transformational A transformational leader is one who inspires his followers by developing an idea after which he sells the idea to his followers (Bass, 2006). He convinces those that have not bought his idea until they buy it. He does this by packaging his idea in the best way possible and by proving himself to be trustworthy (DuBrin, 2009). After the idea has been accepted, he takes the forefront in finding the way forward. His unwavering confidence and loyalty to his vision even when a cloud of doubt has covered his followers is what keeps them going (Bass, 2006). Research shows that there is a very high occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the military (Murray, 2001). When trying to deal with trauma, action taken should be speedy, practical, and effectual (Murray, 2001). A transformational m ilitary leader helps victims of trauma by inspiring them to go beyond their present limitation and to focus on the main thing (Bass, 2006). Such a style gives added attention to them and hence makes them feel unique. It also helps them to look at their present problem in a different way (Bass, 2006). It gives them a sense of belonging and it causes the followers to have admiration, confidence and faith in the leader (Murray, 2001) Leadership Positions within the Military Organizations The army has instituted a way to mirror one’s practice and responsibilities by having a ranking system. Military rank is a system representing a chain of command in military organizations (Horn, 2008). Typically, uniforms are used to indicate its holder’s level by affixing particular badges, symbols of crests to the uniforms (Taylor, 2008). General arms of the army are the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. Within these arms are the broad ranks of commissioned grade namely: the General, th e Command and the Officer ranks (Taylor, 2008). Basic ranks in the military include: General of the Army, General, Lieutenant General, Major General, Brigadier General, Colonel, Lieutenant Colonel, Major, Captain, First Lieutenant and Second Lieutenant (Horn, 2008). Top positions are historically held by men Some top historians in the military include Hans Delbrà ¼ck, B. H. Liddell Hart, Charles Oman, Martin van Creveld, William Ledyard Rodgers, Lynn Montross, John Keegan, Cornelius Ryan, R. Ernest, Trevor N. Dupuy, John Terraine, Victor Davis Hanson, George F.G. Stanley and Jeremy Black (Higate, 2003). All of the above mentioned people are male, and this is proof that the top positions in the military are held by men both in history and presently. This is despite the fact that women are willing and they have the ability to perform in combat if adequately trained (Goldstein, 2003). One of the reasons why the military is mainly a man’s world is because men are said to be more aggressive than women because of their sexuality. Women are victimized in the military and most are raped or killed in battle as a device of war (Higate, 2003). It is because of these dangers that the criterion of enrolling women in the military was made more complex than that of enrolling men. However, many have in the past argued that the women who decide to join the military are adult and are therefore well alert of the consequences therein (Lindm, 2008). Benefits of women who are in command utilizing transformational leadership Women make better transformational leaders than men because this way of leadership involves fostering of talents and capabilities, and women are naturally nurturers by instinct (Kunin, 2008). They therefore find this method of leadership easy to implement without strain. Women are vulnerable in many ways, and some women leaders seek to defend themselves by using the authoritarian leadership style. Such women are met with opposition and distrust from thei r followers (Kunin, 2008). Another benefit of this style is that transformational leadership reinforces organizations because the followers’ efforts and creativity is inspired. This makes such organizations to perform and to achieve their goals within the stipulated time (Bass, 2006). It is also easier for her to capture her followers’ attention and trust in situations where there is conflict of principles or standards of conduct (Kunin, 2008). A transformational leader is also able to discover her potential as well as that of her followers (Bass, 2006). Transformational leadership also provides a stage to level the social ranks in the military (Bass, 2006). This makes it easier for the leader to relate with followers of all the ranks without experiencing the resistance experienced in authoritarian leadership (Kunin, 2008). She also gains the respect of those under her command because their participation allows them to appreciate the challenges of responsibility and de cision making (Bass, 2006). They also become aware of the significance and the importance of the task they are given to the organization (Bass, 2006). With transformational style of leadership, the followers are motivated and stirred by the vision their leader carries; they work tirelessly towards that vision even when other determining factors like the pay they get are not motivating (Bass, 2006). As a result of inspiration and loyalty, it is easier to build up leadership qualities from those people (Bass, 2006). It therefore becomes easier for the leader to recognize those who have exceptional qualities of leadership. Since this method of leadership also instills valuable skills and knowledge into the followers, training them for leadership positions is made much easier (Horn, 2008). In this leadership method some of the suggestions that some of the followers give may actually be accepted and implemented in the organization (Murray, 2001). This gives them a sense of security and a ssurance that there is unity of purpose. They therefore feel more secure with their leader, and this makes it easier for them to obey other orders given to them which they consider impossible to accomplish (Bass, 2006). The followers also become committed to the ideas they give and hence a sense of responsibility. Some of the ideas given by the followers may carry potential disadvantages to the members of the organization. This paralyzes the blame game that followers often play on their leaders when thing go wrong or don’t turn out as was expected. It is also easier for the leader to tackle problems that are beyond her scope of imagination. This is because she is able to make use of a variety of skills, knowledge and creativity that lie unutilized within the participating team members (Kunin, 2008). Obstacles women may face within the military organization Although an increasing number of women serve in the military, vast obstacles to equal chance, equal handling, and enhance d quality of life still prevail (Higate, 2003). Despite adequate training, women still undergo trauma after military experiences. For others, this is made worse by instances of being captured by the enemies and being raped (Clemmitt, 2009). There exist very few organizations that make gender-specific systems of support available to attend to the challenges that women endure in the military (Kunin, 2008). Females are not intended to do exactly the same kind of physical work as men and in the manner in which men do. This is owing to the female body’s distribution of weight (Lindm, 2008). Men carry more weight in the upper body while women have more weight in their lower body (Lindm, 2008). Being in the military it entails a lot of exercise that involves the lower body. This means that for the females, they strain their muscles harder to do the same exercise as a male (Lindm, 2008). Men have dominated the military dome from time immemorial. As a result, it is men who mainly part icipate in designation of the standards of assessment (Kunin, 2008). These standards are rather high for women due to physiological, psychological and social factors (Haley, 2004). Such women feel overworked because of the other maternal roles they play outside the military organization (Kunin, 2008). The women who make it into the military have a hard time keeping up with these standards. Women are generally not as aggressive as their male counterparts, and therefore they find it hard to cope with the violence, arrogance and brutality that are normally found in the world of men (Lindm, 2008). Trauma related to the experiences of war is a major challenge that women face. The experience of seeing a person being killed or actually seeing a corpse is traumatic enough for women (Carreiras, 2008). This may hinder their performance in military work, hence putting their job at risk (Carreiras, 2008). Many are laid off due to underperformance. Research indicates that the major reason for un derperformance is war-related trauma (Clemmitt, 2009). Rarely is their underperformance interpreted to be as a result of traumatic stress. Many misinterpret such underperformance to be as a result of women’s inability to do aggressive or physically demanding jobs (Clemmitt, 2009). This fuels the already present victimization that women face in the military organization. Conclusion Though the number of women serving in the military is increasing by the day, the obstacles that they face while serving therein need to be addressed urgently. There is need for establishment of many organizations that are gender based so that they can tackle the problems that women in combat face. As many women wish to join the military, they should be given adequate training so as to perform in that field as their male counterparts. The biasness and prejudice that women experience in armed forces need to be addressed. References Bass, B. M., Riggio, R.E. (2006). Transformational leadership (2nd Ed .). New York: Routledge. Booher, T. A. (2007). Spouses Also Serve. Oklahoma: Tate Publishing. Carreiras, H. (2008). Women in the Military and in Armed Conflict. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag. Clemmitt, M. (2009). Women in the military: should combat roles be fully opened to women? Washington: Congressional Quarterly. DuBrin, A.J. (2009). 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The encyclopedia of leadership: a practical guide to popular leadership theories and techniques. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. Simon, R.J. (2001). Women in the military. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. Taylor, R.L., Rosenbach, W.E., Rosenbach, E.B. (2008). Military Leadership: In Pursuit of Excellence (6th Ed.). Colorado: Westview Press. This term paper on Women of the Armed Forces was written and submitted by user Xavi A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.